How caste, credit, and crops shape microirrigation in semi-arid India

Water scarcity is a significant global issue, particularly affecting arid and semi-arid regions. Climate change is expected to alter rainfall patterns and increase temperatures, threatening crop production and water resources. Rural livelihoods and food security in developing nations, which rely on rainfed agriculture, are especially at risk. 

In India, agriculture employs 50% of the workforce, with 75% of cropped areas in semi-arid regions vulnerable to climate change. Monsoon deficits in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana, and Rajasthan worsen water scarcity and reduce crop yields.

To address this, water-efficient agricultural practices are essential. Microirrigation, including drip and sprinkler systems, conserves water and boosts productivity. From 2005-06 to 2020-21, microirrigation adoption in India expanded to 10.66 million hectares, spurred by government initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) and its “Per Drop More Crop” initiative.

However, despite microirrigation’s benefits—such as water savings, improved yields, and reduced labour costs—its adoption remains limited, covering less than 20% of the potential area.

Microirrigation's effectiveness varies across states. Andhra Pradesh leads in drip irrigation coverage, while Karnataka excels in sprinkler irrigation. Conversely, adoption in Haryana and Punjab is slower. Barriers to widespread microirrigation adoption include high costs, a lack of awareness, and insufficient subsidies, especially for small farmers.

Despite these challenges, microirrigation technologies are crucial for sustainable agriculture in semi-arid regions, offering significant water savings and increased crop productivity. Government policies and incentives play a vital role in promoting microirrigation adoption, ensuring water conservation, and enhancing agricultural sustainability.

This study by Geetha Mohan et al. investigates factors influencing microirrigation adoption in semi-arid Indian states and identifies barriers hindering its uptake. Understanding these determinants can inform policy recommendations to support wider microirrigation adoption, improve agricultural productivity, and ensure sustainable water use in these vulnerable regions.

Overview of probit model results

Utilising a probit model and data sourced from the India Human Development Survey-II, the research scrutinises a sample size of 2891 households while engaging in focus group discussions. The probit model analysed the adoption of three microirrigation technologies (drip, sprinkler, and combined) in India's top ten semi-arid states, based on parameters from the literature on microirrigation adoption determinants.

• Human capital factors: Age, education, caste, and gender significantly influenced microirrigation adoption. Younger and male farmers are more likely to adopt microirrigation due to the physical labour involved. Surprisingly, education showed a negative impact on microirrigation adoption, possibly due to lower technical efficiency among farmers with minimal education. Caste also influenced adoption, with OBC and general categories showing higher rates compared to SC/ST groups, due to higher maintenance costs and hardware issues.
• Economic and natural capital factors: Household income, landholding size, and irrigation sources were positively correlated with microirrigation adoption. Higher incomes and larger farm sizes motivate investment in microirrigation technologies. However, non-farm activities can negatively impact microirrigation adoption. Medium and large farmers had higher adoption rates for all microirrigation technologies compared to small and marginal farmers.
• Irrigation source: Access to irrigation via tube wells, rivers, and canals significantly influenced microirrigation adoption. Tube wells, especially, showed the highest adoption rates due to their primary use in semi-arid regions.
• Social schemes: Cooperative societies and self-help groups had mixed impacts on microirrigation adoption, providing support but with limitations. The Kisan Credit Card had a positive effect, enabling farmers to obtain credit for agricultural equipment, thus increasing microirrigation adoption rates.
• Physical capital factors: Access to electricity was crucial, with uninterrupted supply promoting MI adoption. Diesel and electric pump sets positively influenced adoption, with diesel engines preferred due to reliable power.
• Regional insights: Karnataka and Maharashtra led in microirrigation adoption, with successful schemes like the Ramthal lift irrigation in Karnataka and the Narmada canal in Rajasthan. Gujarat farmers developed an indigenous system to support crops using gravity flow during power outages.
• Adoption rates: Drip irrigation was predominantly used in Maharashtra and Karnataka, while sprinkler irrigation saw higher adoption in Rajasthan and Karnataka. Tamil Nadu showed the highest adoption rate for drip irrigation (45.8%).

These findings highlight the multifaceted factors influencing microirrigation adoption, emphasising the need for tailored policies and support mechanisms to enhance technology uptake in semi-arid regions.

Farmers' perceptions and challenges in adopting microirrigation technologies: A case from Andhra Pradesh

Focus group discussions in three mandals of East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, revealed key challenges and benefits of adopting microirrigation technologies.

• Landholding and subsidies: Many farmers in the region lease land and are thus ineligible for subsidies, which prioritise land ownership. This discourages the adoption of capital-intensive microirrigation technologies. Small and marginal farmers must meet quality standards for subsidies, making it financially unfeasible for them to adopt these technologies.
• Crop patterns and preferences: Drip irrigation is beneficial for plantations, such as palm trees, reducing labour needs. However, farmers growing cereals, who focus on subsistence farming, find drip irrigation less useful and are reluctant to switch to horticulture crops due to crop destruction by wild animals.
• Irrigation practices and policies: The choice of irrigation technology is influenced by agricultural practices and water sources. Drip irrigation is less preferred when ploughing is needed before harvest. Access to borewells is crucial, but the high cost and lack of subsidies for borewell construction pose significant challenges.
• Joint farm cultivation and water-sharing: Joint farming and water-sharing reduce costs and labour, improve socio-economic conditions, and enhance farmers' skills and livelihoods. This collaborative approach supports the adoption of microirrigation technologies.

Conclusions, limitations, and future research

The study analyses factors influencing the adoption of microirrigation technologies in India's semi-arid regions. Key determinants include human capital factors like education, age, caste, gender, and employment status, along with economic factors such as household income, landholding size, and irrigation access. Higher-educated and medium- to large-scale farmers are more likely to adopt microirrigation technologies, highlighting the role of knowledge and resources.

Regional disparities show varying adoption patterns due to water availability, crop types, and government policies. For instance, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu favour drip irrigation, while Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Rajasthan prefer sprinkler systems. Focus group discussions and interviews were limited to Andhra Pradesh, a leading state in microirrigation adoption, which restricts the generalisability of findings. Future research should expand these discussions to other semi-arid states to understand broader challenges and explore the relationship between water quality, microirrigation technologies, and farmers' income.

Additionally, studying the economic impact of microirrigation adoption and raising awareness about subsidies and government policies is crucial. Research should also develop strategies to enhance farmers' understanding of support mechanisms and explore joint farming and water-sharing methods to support small and marginal farmers, fostering a more resilient agricultural landscape.Promoting micro-irrigation technologies in countries such as India has the potential to enhance agricultural productivity, water conservation, and sustainability significantly.

Key policy recommendations aimed at facilitating microirrigation technology adoption

• Timely subsidies or financial incentives should be provided to smallholder farmers who face challenges in affording upfront costs. Ensuring easy access to credit facilities or low-interest loans tailored for investment in drip irrigation infrastructure can enhance affordability and accessibility for all farmers.

Develop essential infrastructure such as water storage facilities, pumping systems, and irrigation filters at subsidised rates, particularly in economically disadvantaged regions (Angom and Viswanathan, 2023). Introducing portable microirrigation kits that can adapt to various cropping systems is essential to cater to smallholder farmers with diverse land locations and cropping patterns.

• Effective training programs and workshops should be conducted to educate farmers about technical aspects, and collaboration with the private sector for installation guidance is essential. Implementation of regulatory frameworks addressing electricity quality, equipment standards, and water pricing mechanisms can incentivize efficient water use and promote sustainable farming practices (Kumar et al., 2022).

The full paper can be accessed here