The Jal Jeevan Mission is approaching its final year. It has progressed from 17% functional household tap connection coverage in 2019 to 63% in May 2023. A significant number of households are still waiting for a connection with a 55 lpcd service level. At ATREE’s Centre for Social and Environmental Innovation (CSEI), we studied four states of India, namely Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bihar, and Sikkim, to understand the planning and implementation processes of rural drinking water projects. Here, we identify some of the key planning challenges faced in the above-mentioned four states and suggest ways to avoid pitfalls while planning and implementing rural drinking water supply schemes.
What is planning for rural drinking water? What variables are important to look for?
Rural drinking water planning has four components: the needs of the community, necessary infrastructure, a plan for the availability and sustainability of water resources, and the financials of the overall scheme, including building, operating, handing over, and maintenance costs.
Variables such as water availability of sources in months per year, household (HH) tap connections, water supply days per week (pre- and post-monsoon), number of hours of water supply (pre- and post-monsoon), alternative water supply, and litres per capita per day supplied give a clearer picture of the current status and inform about measures to be taken. Other variables related to watershed conditions, community water supplies, water system assets, financial practices, operation, and maintenance can also be collected and rated to determine the priority of the village.
In India’s case, the planning focus has been on creating infrastructure. In the past, rural drinking water schemes have slipped back, mainly due to the failure of water sources and the lack of community capacity to run water supply schemes. It is important to plan and act for the sustainability of the water supply scheme by strengthening other aspects of planning.
Why is planning important for rural drinking water?
Although the sustainability of rural drinking water has been the primary focus in India, issues such as seasonal water shortages, declining water resources, and ultimately the failure of village-based drinking water schemes have been plaguing this sector for a while. Climate change is adding to this by affecting the water cycle around the globe and adversely affecting water security for all. Increased demand for water from all sectors has also resulted in the decline of groundwater levels or conflict over dam water allocations. Especially in the Indian context, single village schemes based on groundwater have been preferred, leading to agricultural water demands competing with the drinking water demands on groundwater resources. This competition is an additional threat to the water security of rural India.
On the other hand, in the case of multi-village schemes, issues such as unequal service levels and inadequate technical and managerial capacity have emerged, leading to institutional ineffectiveness. Drinking water infrastructure naturally comes at a cost, and building it based on rough estimates would jeopardise the public's investment. Once the infrastructure is in place, running it for the projected time period (usually at least twenty-five years) is also necessary to realise the benefits of water supply to the rural population.
For these reasons, comprehensive planning for rural drinking water becomes not only essential but critical for better decision-making, including but not limited to allocating finances and water resources.
What are the challenges to planning?
Source depletion and water quality issues
Drying of sources and source contamination are major issues for planning. Depleting water sources forces planners to look for other alternatives. This may be challenging as the source might not be locally available. Sometimes, water has to be imported through multi-village schemes. As water contamination makes it non-potable, planners have to explore purification processes or else depend on multi-village schemes. These issues may affect the mandated service level provision of 55 LPCD in the future.
In all four states, source sustainability is challenged by one or both issues. In Karnataka and Maharashtra, hard rock aquifers are prominent. These aquifers have low recharge rates, and with less rainfall, the chances of the source going dry are high. In the case of Sikkim, springs are drying due to less recharge upstream. Groundwater contamination is observed in Bihar, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. It has been observed that drinking water borewells go dry due to competing agricultural demands in peninsular India because hard rock aquifers have low recharge rates while the extraction of water is high.
These issues pose a great challenge in terms of physical planning. Planners must deal with all the uncertainties of source availability, equity, quality, and replenishability while building the supply infrastructure.
Community participation
We found that community involvement is limited. For instance, the Village Action Plan in Maharashtra was prepared solely by the leaders of the village without involving all sections of the community. In Karnataka and Bihar, the community’s role is limited to giving approvals. All the strings are pulled by either a leader at the village level or a higher-level administration. Actual needs might not be reflected in overall planning. Due to this, a feeling of ownership was found to be lacking in the community.
Overall community participation increases the chances of the scheme being successful. In the four states that we studied, national Jal Jeevan Mission guidelines are being followed for the planning and implementation of schemes in Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Sikkim. In Bihar, however, the state programme guidelines are followed. As the programmes demand time-bound implementation, states are largely focused on creating infrastructure for improved service levels. This happens with a top-down approach, where the government at each level is working towards meeting a target in their respective administrative unit.
This has resulted in low or no priority for consideration of other planning aspects such as community participation in the planning of source sustainability, infrastructure, and maintenance, which are necessary for the sustainability of schemes. The role of village-level administration seems to be limited to complying with top-level bureaucracy.
Operation and maintenance (O&M) challenges may lead to slip back. Our observation from the field indicates that operation and maintenance remain a big challenge in planning. For instance, O&M is currently supported by the state government and not by the funds collected from water charges. Tariffs are not being collected in most cases, and where they are, it is just to cover certain aspects like operations (say, the salaries of staff involved) but not maintenance. Electricity bills are covered by the state government through funds meant for other development activities in the village. In Bihar, water tariff collection is yet to be rolled out. In Maharashtra, the collection is minimal, forcing Gram Panchayats to depend on other funds. These are indications that the scheme may slip back and fail at a later stage.
Extreme weather events such as cyclones, droughts and floods make it difficult to plan a scheme. If a scheme is designed without considering the effects of extreme weather events, then there is a risk of infrastructure failure in many cases; sometimes it can be an operational failure due to inaccessible sources. In Bihar, water supply schemes remain underwater for a significant time during monsoon floods. In Karnataka and Maharashtra, drought causes overexploitation, leading to the drying of government borewells meant for water supply schemes.
Topographic challenges provide a mix of challenges for physical planning, and water source planning. A mountainous state like Sikkim faces a topographic challenge where habitations are settled on hill slopes and scattered. In this case, infrastructure building is a challenge. Even though habitations are on plains in Bihar, they face the looming challenge of floods in every monsoon season, where water sources and infrastructure are underwater for a substantial period. In peninsular states, villages in the Western Ghats Mountain ranges face similar challenges as those in Sikkim.
The above are some of the challenges faced by planners in only four states of India. Planners in other states might be facing similar challenges. It is essential to address these challenges to make water supply systems sustainable. Following are some suggestions for incorporation at the planning stage of rural drinking water schemes in general and in India in particular:
- Serious consideration for source sustainability has to be an integral part of planning, either at the watershed level or at an administrative scale such as district or block. Along with this, the convergence of the schemes should be made to effectively execute the water conservation works through various departments. At last, an effective water regulatory framework should be in place to safeguard drinking water security.
- Equal attention has to be given to other aspects of planning, such as the capacity building of the community to monitor water quality and water availability, as well as the ability to take over water supply schemes. Other options, such as private players taking over operation and maintenance, should be explored.
- To avoid scheme failure, Cost recovery for Operation and Maintenance should be the priority. The community should be made aware of the importance of tariff payment for the successful Operation and Maintenance of water supply schemes. Community participation from all sections of society should be one of the planning goals.
- Innovative solutions should be explored to minimise the risk of extreme weather events and topographic challenges, such as the diversification of drinking water sources.
- It is vital to give long-term support to the community to operate and maintain a water supply scheme even after the initial trial period.
Author: Adarsh Dalavi is a water professional working in the areas of WASH and WRM. He works as a Research Associate with the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), a non-profit organisation that generates interdisciplinary knowledge to inform policy and practise towards conservation and sustainability. Adarsh is interested in the Water-Energy-Food nexus and GIS. He is thankful to Susan Varghese, Saad Ahmed, Vivek V, and Niraj Joshi for their comments and to the research team for their input.
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